[The States United]
- 1775: Lexington and Concord
(Defining American War Aims)
· Second Continental Congress (Philadelphia): three weeks after the battles of Lexington and Concord
o liberal: John Adams & Samuel Adams, Richard Henry Lee of Virginia
o moderates: John Dickinson of Pennsylvania
· fight due to grievances within the British empire -> 1) high cost of war 2) British began recruiting Indians, African slaves, and German mercenaries (Hessians) -> Independence
· Thomas Paine <Common Sense> Jan. 1776: Americans must break away from Britain which holds a political system that “inflict such brutality”
(Declaration of Independence)
· Continental Congress - 1776 June 4th: Declaration of Independence
o Thomas Jefferson, Benjamin Franklin, John Adams
o Jefferson: “life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness”
o lists crimes of the king -> …therefore colonists ~
· 1781: most states produced written constitutions for themselves
· 1777: Congress adopted a plan for union
o Articles of Confederation: weak, decentralized system
(Mobilizing for War)
· financial problems
o Congress had to authority to levy taxes -> each state only contributed a small amount
o could not borrow from the public <- only few can afford bonds
o printed paper currency -> inflation; -> switched to borrowing money from other nations
· army problems
o (first surge of Patriotism: 1775) few volunteer soldiers
o Continental Army (George Washington)
o aided by foreign military experts (Marquis de Lafayette – France / Baron von Steuben – Prussia)
[The War for Independence]
British adv.
Americans adv.
- great navy & best-equipped army
- fighting on their own ground
- large resources
- more determined
(The First Phase: New England)
· 1775-1776: did not take the war seriously; thought as Britain trying to crush the rebellion
· 1775: Battle of Bunker Hill
· 1776 March: British (redcoats) evacuated Boston
· 1776 Feb: southern Patriots crushed uprising of Loyalists; Americans began an invasion of Canada
o unsuccessful (Montgomery killed, Arnold wounded)
· 1776 spring
o American campaigns in Canada, agitation in South, colonial unity -> Independence
(The Second Phase: The Mid-Atlantic Region)
· 1776 – 1778: Britain good position to win
o 1776: more supplies and 32,000 British soldiers to New York (Commander: William Howe)
o Washington: 19,000 men
o Britain’s path: Manhattan -> New Jersey -> Delaware River -> Pennsylvania
· 1776 Christmas Eve: Washington’s surprise attack at Trenton and Princeton
· 1777: Britain’s strategy – divide United States in two
o to meet up helping force from Canada (Burgoyne)
o later switched to capture Philadelphia <- hope to end quickly by capturing the colonial capital
§ Continental Congress moved to York, Pennsylvania
· Burgoyne (alone) -> shot of supplies
o surrendered on 1777 Oct.
· Iroquois Confederacy: officially declared neutrality -> some engaged with British -> “things falls apart”
(Securing Aid from Abroad)
· America sought to cooperate with France
o Benjamin Franklin went to Paris to lobby
· France (minister: Count de Vergennes) wanted to see the proof of America winning -> British defeat at Saratoga
· 1777 Dec. – Lord North’s new peace offer: quite the war in exchange of complete home rule
· 1778 Feb. – Vergennes’s formal recognition to U.S. & military assistance
· France, Spain, the Netherlands, U.S. vs. Britain
(The Final Phase: The South)
· British tried to enlist loyalists and slaves
· 1778 – 1781: British moved South for Loyalist sentiment
o failed because Patriots blended in
· 1778: Henry Clinton discharged Howe, moved his army to New York
· George Rogers Clark: captured Illinois country from British and Indian allies
· 1780: treason of General Arnold <- scheme was exposed before, fled to British
· British’s successes at Georgia (1778 Dec.) and South Carolina (1780 May)
o though won continental battles, harassed by guerrillas
§ “Swamp Fox” – Thomas Sumter, Andre Pickens, Francis Marion
· 1780 Aug.: Lord Cornwallis crushed Patriots army (led by Horatio Gates)
o Washington replaced Gates with Greene
· 1780 Oct.: Patriots’ massive attack on NY and S. Carolina Tories
· 1781 Jan.: Greene vs. Cornwallis in N. Carolina
o Cornwallis lost too many men -> retreated from Carolina, defensive position in Yorktown
· 1781 Oct. 17: Cornwallis surrendered with 7,000 men
(Winning the Peace)
· Lord North resigned PM -> Lord Shelburne succeeded
· America, afraid of breakage of alliance (for Spain did not gain the land from Britain), signed the preliminary treaty with Great Britain without the notice to France 1782
· 1783: final treaty, favorable to U.S.
o recognition of independence
o (ambiguous) boundary – southern boundary of Canada to the northern boundary of Florida and from Atlantic to the Mississippi
[War and Society]
- along with French revolution, intrigued the revolts of many other regions
(Loyalists and Minorities)
· Loyalists (1/5 ~ 1/3 of the White population) were being disdained or even attacked -> such were officeholders, merchants, people lived in isolation -> 100,000 fled the country
o moved to England
o to Canada (English-speaking community) in Quebec
o some returned after things were settled
· Anglican Church -> lost its power, unable to afford clergy
· Quakers -> unflavored due to unpopular “Pacifism”
· Presbyterian, Congregational, Baptist churches rose
o Vatican sent bishop to 1789 (recognizing U.S. as a nation)
(The War and Slavery)
· British helped slaves to escape (to distract people from War)
· Slaves soon learnt to read -> exposed to revolutionary ideas
o Thomas Jeremiah (S. Carolina – free slave) executed for plotting a slave uprising
North – antislavery
South – pro-slavery
Christian fervor
slaves = inferior and unfit for citizenship
slave trade prohibited (illegal)
slavery = best way to ensure liberty for whites
legal manumission
disfavor for white servants
abolished slavery (gradual)
white superiority
(Native Americans and the Revolution)
- as more lands were required, Indian’s position degraded
· 1) neutral; 2) stick to British (who limits the land expansion of the colonies); 3) attack on their own
· 1776: Cherokee attacked whites in western Carolinas and Virginia
o Patriots fought back -> Cherokee forced to flee west of Tennessee River
o those who remained signed a new treaty to grant Patriots more land
· Thomas Jefferson: Indians as “noble savages”
(Women’s Rights and Women’s Roles)
· Women replaced men in workforce (field, shops, etc.)
· launched attacks on occupying British troops
· “camp followers” – helped cooking, laundering, nursing in army
· questioning their social status: Abigail Adams (protections against tyrannical husbands), Judith Sargent (girls should have education)
· after the revolution
o women’s rights to divorce
o own husband’s property (for widows)
(The War Economy)
· end the trading relationship with Britain -> enforcement of trading relationship with Caribbean and South America, mid-1780, Asia
· focus on domestic economy -> increased trades among the states
[The Creation of State Government]
- attempt to create a new government system
(The Assumptions of Republicanism)
- the political ideology experiment
· favored Republic
· equality: “All men are created equal.”
o women, slaves and native Americans excluded (birth determined the future success)
(The Frist State Constitutions)
· Connecticut and Rhode Island: constitutions adopted from king’s charters
· Other states: created their own documents
o most eliminated the governor or any executive officer to hold a seat in the legislature
(Revising State Governments)
· late 1770s: instability of state governments <- too much democracy?
o -> moved to limit popular power
· 1780: Massachusetts the first state with rectified constitution
o instead of legislature writing the constitution, a special assembly (only for this purpose)
o strong governor with regular salary paid
· -> by 1780s, most states revised constitutions
(Toleration and Slavery)
· many believed church-associated government but rejected for its domination
· 1786, Virginia – Thomas Jefferson (Statute of Religious Liberty): complete separation of church and state
· some states abolished slavery or halted slave trades; survived in southern and border states
o white superiority
o economic investment in slaves
o did not believe Blacks and Whites are equal
[The Search for a National Government]
- many believed: weak central government, each state as a sovereign nation -> Articles of Confederations
(The Confederation)
· 1781 – 1789: lacked adequate powers
· national government – what it got
It can do…
conduct war
regulate trade
foreign relations
It cannot do…
appropriate, borrow, issue $
· before it applies its decision, the National Government had to make a formal request to the states, which was often refused
· at least 9/13 states have to vote to make a decision; all have to agree to make amendments
· small states: equal representation VS. big states: based on population
(Diplomatic Failures)
· Treaty of 1783: British promise to evacuate American territory -> Britain continued occupying posts along the Great Lakes
· Britain rejected America to enter its market
· 1784: John Adams sent to England -> wasn’t effective
· British gov. refused to send a diplomatic minister to American capital
· 1786: Confederation diplomats agreed to a treaty with Spain
o Spain accepted Florida boundary set by Americans
o America accepted Spain’s claim on North America, limited the rights of U.S. vessels to navigate Mississippi for 20 yr
§ South blocked the ratification
(The Confederation and the Northwest)
· 1784: control over western lands
· The ordinance of 1784 (proposed by Thomas Jefferson) – divided the western territory into ten self-governing districts; districts could petition Congress to statehood after population growth
o created system to survey and sell the lands -> notion of “public land”
o eliminated the land disputes
o encouraged dispersed form of settlements
· could not sell the land to anyone but Ohio and Scioto Companies -> criticism rose
o 1787 Northwest Ordinance: single Northwest Territory and divided into three and five territories
§ prohibited slavery
§ guaranteed freedom of religion
§ minimum statehood
§ rights to trials by jury
· western lands south of Ohio River (Kentucky and Tennessee)
o slave owning territories
o claimed for statehood <- problem never solved
(Indians and the Western Lands)
- constant land disputes
· 1784, 1785, 1786: persuading Iroquois, Choctaw, Chickasaw, Cherokee leaders to sign treaties to cede lands
o ineffective – 1) never accepted the treaty; 2) repudiated the treaty
· Miami (led by Little Turtle) won major battles; wanted whites to stop coming in west of Ohio River -> defeated the Indians in the Battle of Fallen Timbers 1794
· 1795: Treaty of Greenville (signed by Miami): give up land to U.S. but keep some legally for themselves
o recognized the sovereignty of Indian nations
(Debts, Taxes, and Daniel Shays)
· 1784-1787: postwar depression
· Confederation itself had large sum of debts -> no power to tax, received only 1/6 of the money it asked for
o war bonds that are due to pay
o owed money to soldiers
o debts abroad
· Robert Morris – head of the Confederation’s treasury
· Alexander Hamilton – Morris’ young protégé
· James Madison of Virginia
· “continental impost” – 5% duty on imported goods levied by Congress (to pay off the debts)
o feared this gave power to Morris crew
§ failed to approve it in 1781 & 1783
· farmers demanded for paper currency (cash) immediately
· 1780s: mobs (led by Daniel Shays; war veteran)
o demanded paper money, tax relief, moratorium on debts, abolition of prisoners for debts
o 1786: Shaysites prevented the collection of debts, use force to keep courts closed from selling confiscated property
o winter: rebels advanced on Springfield to seize weapons
o 1787 Jan.: state militiamen from Boston attacked Shaysites
o Massachusetts offered tax relief and postponement of debt payments
- 1775: Lexington and Concord
(Defining American War Aims)
· Second Continental Congress (Philadelphia): three weeks after the battles of Lexington and Concord
o liberal: John Adams & Samuel Adams, Richard Henry Lee of Virginia
o moderates: John Dickinson of Pennsylvania
· fight due to grievances within the British empire -> 1) high cost of war 2) British began recruiting Indians, African slaves, and German mercenaries (Hessians) -> Independence
· Thomas Paine <Common Sense> Jan. 1776: Americans must break away from Britain which holds a political system that “inflict such brutality”
(Declaration of Independence)
· Continental Congress - 1776 June 4th: Declaration of Independence
o Thomas Jefferson, Benjamin Franklin, John Adams
o Jefferson: “life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness”
o lists crimes of the king -> …therefore colonists ~
· 1781: most states produced written constitutions for themselves
· 1777: Congress adopted a plan for union
o Articles of Confederation: weak, decentralized system
(Mobilizing for War)
· financial problems
o Congress had to authority to levy taxes -> each state only contributed a small amount
o could not borrow from the public <- only few can afford bonds
o printed paper currency -> inflation; -> switched to borrowing money from other nations
· army problems
o (first surge of Patriotism: 1775) few volunteer soldiers
o Continental Army (George Washington)
o aided by foreign military experts (Marquis de Lafayette – France / Baron von Steuben – Prussia)
[The War for Independence]
British adv.
Americans adv.
- great navy & best-equipped army
- fighting on their own ground
- large resources
- more determined
(The First Phase: New England)
· 1775-1776: did not take the war seriously; thought as Britain trying to crush the rebellion
· 1775: Battle of Bunker Hill
· 1776 March: British (redcoats) evacuated Boston
· 1776 Feb: southern Patriots crushed uprising of Loyalists; Americans began an invasion of Canada
o unsuccessful (Montgomery killed, Arnold wounded)
· 1776 spring
o American campaigns in Canada, agitation in South, colonial unity -> Independence
(The Second Phase: The Mid-Atlantic Region)
· 1776 – 1778: Britain good position to win
o 1776: more supplies and 32,000 British soldiers to New York (Commander: William Howe)
o Washington: 19,000 men
o Britain’s path: Manhattan -> New Jersey -> Delaware River -> Pennsylvania
· 1776 Christmas Eve: Washington’s surprise attack at Trenton and Princeton
· 1777: Britain’s strategy – divide United States in two
o to meet up helping force from Canada (Burgoyne)
o later switched to capture Philadelphia <- hope to end quickly by capturing the colonial capital
§ Continental Congress moved to York, Pennsylvania
· Burgoyne (alone) -> shot of supplies
o surrendered on 1777 Oct.
· Iroquois Confederacy: officially declared neutrality -> some engaged with British -> “things falls apart”
(Securing Aid from Abroad)
· America sought to cooperate with France
o Benjamin Franklin went to Paris to lobby
· France (minister: Count de Vergennes) wanted to see the proof of America winning -> British defeat at Saratoga
· 1777 Dec. – Lord North’s new peace offer: quite the war in exchange of complete home rule
· 1778 Feb. – Vergennes’s formal recognition to U.S. & military assistance
· France, Spain, the Netherlands, U.S. vs. Britain
(The Final Phase: The South)
· British tried to enlist loyalists and slaves
· 1778 – 1781: British moved South for Loyalist sentiment
o failed because Patriots blended in
· 1778: Henry Clinton discharged Howe, moved his army to New York
· George Rogers Clark: captured Illinois country from British and Indian allies
· 1780: treason of General Arnold <- scheme was exposed before, fled to British
· British’s successes at Georgia (1778 Dec.) and South Carolina (1780 May)
o though won continental battles, harassed by guerrillas
§ “Swamp Fox” – Thomas Sumter, Andre Pickens, Francis Marion
· 1780 Aug.: Lord Cornwallis crushed Patriots army (led by Horatio Gates)
o Washington replaced Gates with Greene
· 1780 Oct.: Patriots’ massive attack on NY and S. Carolina Tories
· 1781 Jan.: Greene vs. Cornwallis in N. Carolina
o Cornwallis lost too many men -> retreated from Carolina, defensive position in Yorktown
· 1781 Oct. 17: Cornwallis surrendered with 7,000 men
(Winning the Peace)
· Lord North resigned PM -> Lord Shelburne succeeded
· America, afraid of breakage of alliance (for Spain did not gain the land from Britain), signed the preliminary treaty with Great Britain without the notice to France 1782
· 1783: final treaty, favorable to U.S.
o recognition of independence
o (ambiguous) boundary – southern boundary of Canada to the northern boundary of Florida and from Atlantic to the Mississippi
[War and Society]
- along with French revolution, intrigued the revolts of many other regions
(Loyalists and Minorities)
· Loyalists (1/5 ~ 1/3 of the White population) were being disdained or even attacked -> such were officeholders, merchants, people lived in isolation -> 100,000 fled the country
o moved to England
o to Canada (English-speaking community) in Quebec
o some returned after things were settled
· Anglican Church -> lost its power, unable to afford clergy
· Quakers -> unflavored due to unpopular “Pacifism”
· Presbyterian, Congregational, Baptist churches rose
o Vatican sent bishop to 1789 (recognizing U.S. as a nation)
(The War and Slavery)
· British helped slaves to escape (to distract people from War)
· Slaves soon learnt to read -> exposed to revolutionary ideas
o Thomas Jeremiah (S. Carolina – free slave) executed for plotting a slave uprising
North – antislavery
South – pro-slavery
Christian fervor
slaves = inferior and unfit for citizenship
slave trade prohibited (illegal)
slavery = best way to ensure liberty for whites
legal manumission
disfavor for white servants
abolished slavery (gradual)
white superiority
(Native Americans and the Revolution)
- as more lands were required, Indian’s position degraded
· 1) neutral; 2) stick to British (who limits the land expansion of the colonies); 3) attack on their own
· 1776: Cherokee attacked whites in western Carolinas and Virginia
o Patriots fought back -> Cherokee forced to flee west of Tennessee River
o those who remained signed a new treaty to grant Patriots more land
· Thomas Jefferson: Indians as “noble savages”
(Women’s Rights and Women’s Roles)
· Women replaced men in workforce (field, shops, etc.)
· launched attacks on occupying British troops
· “camp followers” – helped cooking, laundering, nursing in army
· questioning their social status: Abigail Adams (protections against tyrannical husbands), Judith Sargent (girls should have education)
· after the revolution
o women’s rights to divorce
o own husband’s property (for widows)
(The War Economy)
· end the trading relationship with Britain -> enforcement of trading relationship with Caribbean and South America, mid-1780, Asia
· focus on domestic economy -> increased trades among the states
[The Creation of State Government]
- attempt to create a new government system
(The Assumptions of Republicanism)
- the political ideology experiment
· favored Republic
· equality: “All men are created equal.”
o women, slaves and native Americans excluded (birth determined the future success)
(The Frist State Constitutions)
· Connecticut and Rhode Island: constitutions adopted from king’s charters
· Other states: created their own documents
o most eliminated the governor or any executive officer to hold a seat in the legislature
(Revising State Governments)
· late 1770s: instability of state governments <- too much democracy?
o -> moved to limit popular power
· 1780: Massachusetts the first state with rectified constitution
o instead of legislature writing the constitution, a special assembly (only for this purpose)
o strong governor with regular salary paid
· -> by 1780s, most states revised constitutions
(Toleration and Slavery)
· many believed church-associated government but rejected for its domination
· 1786, Virginia – Thomas Jefferson (Statute of Religious Liberty): complete separation of church and state
· some states abolished slavery or halted slave trades; survived in southern and border states
o white superiority
o economic investment in slaves
o did not believe Blacks and Whites are equal
[The Search for a National Government]
- many believed: weak central government, each state as a sovereign nation -> Articles of Confederations
(The Confederation)
· 1781 – 1789: lacked adequate powers
· national government – what it got
It can do…
conduct war
regulate trade
foreign relations
It cannot do…
appropriate, borrow, issue $
· before it applies its decision, the National Government had to make a formal request to the states, which was often refused
· at least 9/13 states have to vote to make a decision; all have to agree to make amendments
· small states: equal representation VS. big states: based on population
(Diplomatic Failures)
· Treaty of 1783: British promise to evacuate American territory -> Britain continued occupying posts along the Great Lakes
· Britain rejected America to enter its market
· 1784: John Adams sent to England -> wasn’t effective
· British gov. refused to send a diplomatic minister to American capital
· 1786: Confederation diplomats agreed to a treaty with Spain
o Spain accepted Florida boundary set by Americans
o America accepted Spain’s claim on North America, limited the rights of U.S. vessels to navigate Mississippi for 20 yr
§ South blocked the ratification
(The Confederation and the Northwest)
· 1784: control over western lands
· The ordinance of 1784 (proposed by Thomas Jefferson) – divided the western territory into ten self-governing districts; districts could petition Congress to statehood after population growth
o created system to survey and sell the lands -> notion of “public land”
o eliminated the land disputes
o encouraged dispersed form of settlements
· could not sell the land to anyone but Ohio and Scioto Companies -> criticism rose
o 1787 Northwest Ordinance: single Northwest Territory and divided into three and five territories
§ prohibited slavery
§ guaranteed freedom of religion
§ minimum statehood
§ rights to trials by jury
· western lands south of Ohio River (Kentucky and Tennessee)
o slave owning territories
o claimed for statehood <- problem never solved
(Indians and the Western Lands)
- constant land disputes
· 1784, 1785, 1786: persuading Iroquois, Choctaw, Chickasaw, Cherokee leaders to sign treaties to cede lands
o ineffective – 1) never accepted the treaty; 2) repudiated the treaty
· Miami (led by Little Turtle) won major battles; wanted whites to stop coming in west of Ohio River -> defeated the Indians in the Battle of Fallen Timbers 1794
· 1795: Treaty of Greenville (signed by Miami): give up land to U.S. but keep some legally for themselves
o recognized the sovereignty of Indian nations
(Debts, Taxes, and Daniel Shays)
· 1784-1787: postwar depression
· Confederation itself had large sum of debts -> no power to tax, received only 1/6 of the money it asked for
o war bonds that are due to pay
o owed money to soldiers
o debts abroad
· Robert Morris – head of the Confederation’s treasury
· Alexander Hamilton – Morris’ young protégé
· James Madison of Virginia
· “continental impost” – 5% duty on imported goods levied by Congress (to pay off the debts)
o feared this gave power to Morris crew
§ failed to approve it in 1781 & 1783
· farmers demanded for paper currency (cash) immediately
· 1780s: mobs (led by Daniel Shays; war veteran)
o demanded paper money, tax relief, moratorium on debts, abolition of prisoners for debts
o 1786: Shaysites prevented the collection of debts, use force to keep courts closed from selling confiscated property
o winter: rebels advanced on Springfield to seize weapons
o 1787 Jan.: state militiamen from Boston attacked Shaysites
o Massachusetts offered tax relief and postponement of debt payments
