APUSH Cram - Aiming for 5
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    • Brinkley Outline>
      • Ch. 1 :: The Meeting of Cultures
      • Ch. 2 :: Transplantations and Borderlands
      • Ch. 3 :: Society and Culture in Provincial America
      • Ch. 4 :: The Empire in Transition
      • Ch. 5 :: The American Revolution
      • Ch. 6 :: The Constitution and the New Republic
      • Ch. 7 :: The Jeffersonian Era
      • Ch. 8 :: Varieties of American Nationaism
      • Ch. 9 :: Jacksonian America
      • Ch. 10 :: America's Economic Revolution
      • Ch. 11 :: Cotton, Slavery, and the Old South
      • Ch. 12 :: Antebellum Culture and Reform
      • Ch. 13 :: The Impending Crisis
      • Ch. 14 :: The Civil War
      • Ch. 15 :: Reconstruction and the New South
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- tension between South and North

- African Americans <- could not earn legal protections or the material resources; no equality yet

·      but created new institutions

[The Problems of Peacemaking]

- 1865: Abraham Lincoln couldn’t negotiate a treaty with Confederate (because it has no legal rights), couldn’t simply readmit them into the Union

(The Aftermath of War and Emancipation)

·      South: complete destruction

·      Southern whites: lost their slaves (properties) and worthless Confederate bonds and currency

o   more than 258,000 soldiers died, many came home wounded, no home, starvation

·      Southern blacks: no properties, no houses

(Competing Notions of Freedom)

·      mixed definition of freedom

·      blacks: required gov. to take the lands away from whites and redistribute to blacks / legal equality

o   black desire for independence -> separated out from white institution such as church and created their own (church, school, society, etc.)

·      whites: ability to control their own destinies w/out interference from North or fed. gov. …regional autonomy, white supremacy

·      Fed. troops remained in South (military rule) to preserve order and protect freed men

·      March 1865: Freedmen’s Bureau (directed by General Oliver O. Howard) – originally planned for one year, lacked funding, the problem was too big

o   distributed food

o   established school (missionaries and teachers sent by Freedmen’s Aid Societies and other private & church groups in North)

o   unofficially proposed to grant lands to blacks

(Plans for Reconstruction)

·      Republicans, main hands for reconstruction, divided into two sides:

·      Conservatives: South accept abolition, readmit the seceded states

·      Radicals: (led by Rep. Thaddeus Stevens of Penn. and Senator Charles Sumner of MA) harsher treatment to South – disenfranchising Southern whites, protecting black civil rights, confiscating white properties who aided Confederate, distributing lands among the freedmen

·      Moderates: rejected Radicals but supported some concessions from the South on black rights

·      Lincoln: favored lenient Reconstruction policy, believed that Southern Unionists (mostly former Whigs) could be the loyal branch in the South

o   1863 Dec.: Reconstruction Plan (Ten Percent Plan)

§  pardon anyone except confederate high officials as long as they accept the abolition of slavery

§  when 10% of total voters had taken the oaths, it can set up a state gov.

o   extending suffrage to African Americans with education, property, or had served in Union

o   1864: Louisiana, Arkansas, Tennessee - reestablished loyal gov. under the Lincoln plan

·      July 1864: Radicals, refused to meet reps. from above three states, proposed Wade-Davis Bill

o   called president to appoint a provisional governor for each conquered state

o   when the majority of the white males pledged their allegiance to the Union, the governor could summon a state constitutional convention, voted by ppl who never armed up against U.S. (aka, never served in Confederate army)

o   abolish slavery

o   disenfranchise Confederate civil and military leaders

o   repudiate debts gained by state gov. during the war

o   -> after all this, the state then can be readmitted

§  ambiguous political rights for blacks

o   => Lincoln pocket vetoed it in late 1864

(The Death of Lincoln)

·      assassination of Lincoln: April 14, 1865, Ford’s Theater, John Wilkes Booth shot Lincoln on the head

·      wounded Secretary of State William Seward, attempted to kill VP Andrew Johnson

·      North’s tension to South (developed that South is up with a conspiracy, threatening North)

(Johnson and “Restoration”)

·      1864: Moderates and Conservatives followed Andrew Johnson of Tennessee

o   a Democrat until he joined Union

·      “presidential Restoration” – Ten Percent Plan + Wade-Davis Bill

o   for a state to reapply for Union, must revoke its ordinance of secession, abolish slavery, ratify the 13th amendment, repudiate Confederate and state war debts

·      end of 1865: all the seceded states formed new gov.

·      Radicals: did not recognize Johnson gov., because North want harsher restriction for South

o   delegates of Southern convention angered North by their reluctance toward abolition and civil rights for blacks

o   North defied South Confederate leaders in Congress, such as Alexander Stephens of Georgia (VP_Confederate)

[Radical Reconstruction]

- Congress refused to seat the rep. from restored states

- created a new Joint Committee on Reconstruction to frame a policy of its own

(The Black Codes)

·      1865-1866: Black codes passed in South

o   authorized local officials to arrest unemployed blacks, fine them for vagrancy, and hire them out to private employers

o   forbade blacks to own or lease farms, take other jobs than plantation workers or domestic servants

·      Congress respond:

o   extended the power of Freedmen’s Bureau

o   April 1866: first Civil Rights Act, declared blacks = citizens of the United States, gave fed. gov. to intervene in state affairs for protecting the citizens

·      Johnson vetoed both <- Congress overrode him

(The Fourteenth Amendment)

·      April 1866: the Joint Committee on Reconstruction proposed 14th Amendment to the Constitution – everyone born in the United States + everyone naturalized =  automatically a citizen / given all the “privileges and immunities” guaranteed by the Constitution + equal protection of the laws

o   imposed penalties on states that denied suffrage to any adult male inhabitants

o   prohibited former ppl aided Confederate to hold any state/federal office, unless 2/3 Congress voted to pardon them

·      Radicals: offered to readmit any states ratified the 14th Amendment

o   Delaware and Kentucky refused

·      New Orleans and other Southern cities: bloody race riots -> strengthened Republicans

o   Republicans grew strong enough to override President’s opposition

(The Congressional Plan)

·      Radicals passed three Reconstruction bills early in 1867 <- overrode Johnson’s vetoes of all of them

o   Tennessee readmitted

·      Congress rejected the Lincoln-Johnson governments -> combined those states five military districts – a military commander governed each district, and had orders for qualified voters (all b/w adults who did not participate in Confederate activities) -> would vote for new states constitution (had to include black suffrage) -> elect state governments, and Congress had to approve a state’s constitution, and 14th Amendment must be included -> then readmitted to the Union after enough states had done so (1868)

·      1868: 7/10 fulfilled these conditions -> readmitted to the Union

·      additional requirement: ratification of 15th Amendment (universal suffrage)

o   ratification by the states completed in 1870

·      to stop Johnson from interfering: passed two laws 1867

o   Tenure of Office Act: forbade president to remove civil officials, including the members of his own cabinet, w/out Senate’s consent

§  to protect Secretary of War (Edwin M. Stanton – cooperating with the Radicals)

o   Command of the Army Act: forbade president from issuing military orders, except through the commanding general of the army (General Grant)

·      Court: Ex parte Milligan (1866) – military tribunals were unconstitutional

o   <- Radicals proposed several bills requiring 2/3 of the justices to:

§  support any decision overruling a law of Congress

§  deny the Court jurisdiction in Reconstruction-matters

§  reduce the number of juries

§  even abolish it

o   next two years: Court refused to accept any jurisdiction involving Reconstruction

(The Impeachment of Andrew Johnson)

·      Johnson = admin. of Reconstruction programs <- Radicals believed that he was the impediment to their plans

·      1867: Radicals wanted to move Johnson out of his office

o   Johnson dismissed Secretary of War Stanton

o   -> impeached the president

·      1868 April – May: impeachment trial

o   7 Republicans changed their mind -> turned to Democrat

o   35:19 votes <- 1 short for 2/3 majority

§  Radicals later dropped impeachment charge

[The South in Reconstruction]

- huge impact on South

(The Reconstruction Governments)

·      “scalawags” = Southern white Republicans, former Whigs, generally poor

·      “carpetbaggers” = white men from the North, war veterans, coming to South for $

·      many Republicans in the South = black

o   no previous political experience -> built their own institution

·      built independent communities / institutions

·      African Americans: 1) delegates during the new constitutional conventions; 2) hold public offices

o   but overall, blacks serving in offices = low percentages

·      corruption, financial extravagance, etc.

(Education)

·      Southern education <- by Freedmen’s Bureau, Northern private philanthropic organizations, Northern female teachers

·      South whites felt the education will give the black “false notions of equality”

·      schools for blacks - by 1870: 4,000 schools with 9,000 teachers (half=black), 200,000 students

·      1870: building comprehensive public school system -> 1876: more than ½ of white children and 40% black children attending schools

o   all schools = racially segregated

·      black colleges & universities

(Landownership and Tenancy)

·      Freedmen’s Bureau: landownership reform in the South <- failed

o   1865 June: 10,000 black families on their own lands (abandoned plantations in areas occupied by the Union armies)

o   owners coming back -> demanding for land return

§  President Johnson supported them

o   gov. gave back the confiscated lands back to whites

·      white landownership: 80% (before the war) -> 67% (end of Reconstruction)

o   some lost their land due to unpaid debt / increased taxes

o   others left to move to more fertile areas

·      black landownership: 0% -> 20%

·      most blacks had no lands -> worked for others

o   black agricultural laborers (25% of the total) worked for wages

o   most became tenants (working for their own lands)

o   some rent the lands together (“sharecropping”)

·      tenantry benefited landlords

o   no need to purchase slaves

o   physical well-being of their workers

(Incomes and Credit)

·      remarkable economic progress for African Americans in the South

o   1857 -> 1879: per capita income rose 46%

o   able to work less (1/3 less than the time before the Civil War)

o   women and children <- did not work in the fields

·      black income increasing, total South agricultural output decreasing

o   black still stayed in poverty

·      crop-lien (credit) system

o   lacked stable credit system -> depended on local merchant -> local stores had to competition…charged ridiculously high interest rate

o   crop taken to the merchant as “credit”

o   many lost their credits during bad years -> became landless and poorer

§  Southern farmers became almost wholly dependent on cash crops -> soil exhaustion -> bad economy overall in South

(The African-American Family in Freedom)

·      family unification => wandered through the South looking for family members

·      many slave couples had their legal marriages

·      black family structure:

o   females and children = resting in houses, women to domestic tasks, but some engaged in income-producing activities such as:

§  domestic servant, laundry, helping husbands

§  => ½ of black women (over 16-yr-old) working

[The Grant Administration]

- 1868: yearned for a strong & stable figure -> General Ulysses S. Grant

(The Soldier President)

·      Grant chose Republican nomination

o   Republican Reconstruction policies were more popular in the North

·      Democrats nominated Horatio Seymour of NY (former governor)

·      Grant won narrowly <- had no political experiences

o   Hamilton Fish = secretary of state

o   other members of the cabinet = incapable

o   relied on established party leaders / spoils system

o   alienated many Northerners who were against Radical Republican policies <- continued to support it

·      Liberal Republicans opposed such “Grantism”

o   1872: to prevent Grant reelection, nominated their own candidate – Horace Greeley (editor / publisher of NY Tribune)

·      Democrats named Greeley as well

·      => Grant reelected

(The Grant Scandals)

·      1872 political Scandal: Credit Mobilier (French-owned) helped to build Union Pacific Railroad -> using its powers as stockholders, signed a lot of contracts to their own construction company; to prevent investigation, director gave the stocks to key members of Congress

o   during the investigation, found out that Grant’s VP – Schuyler Colfax – accepted the bribe too

·      Benjamin H. Bristow (Grant’s 3rd Treasury Secretary) discovered some officials making black money out from “whiskey ring” by filing false reports

o   investigation revealed that William W. Belknap (secretary of war) had accepted bribes to make an Indian-post trader to stay in his office (Indian Ring)

·      other various scandals -> gov. trashing up with garbages

(The Greenback Question)

·      Panic of 1873

o   caused by failure over banking firms’ investment

§  Jay Cooke and Company

o   invested too much in postwar railroad building

·      Debtors asked the fed. gov. to redeem for war bonds with greenbacks -> if did so, inflation

o   Grant wanted “sound” currency (currency backed by species) <- favoring interests of banks and other creditors

·      during the Civil War, $356 issues & still in circulation

o   1873: in response to the panic, issues even more

·      1875: Republicans passed “Specie Resumption Act” – after Jan. 1st, 1879, greenbacks would be redeemed by the gov. & replaced with new certificates (based on gold value)

o   satisfied creditors (debts would be repaid in currency with certain value)

o   worried debtors ($ is not easily expanded)

·      1875: “greenbackers” formed their own political organization -> the National Greenback Party

o   failed to gain widespread support

(Republican Diplomacy)

·      foreign affairs <- due to secretaries of state: William H. Seward and Hamilton Fish

·      William H. Seward bought Russian offer to buy Alaska for $7.2 million

o   critics called it “Seward’s Folly”

·      1867 – Seward annexed Hawaii

·      Hamilton Fish: America claimed that Britain had violated neutrality laws during the Civil War through Alabama ships

o   asked Britain for compensation <- Alabama Claims

·      1871: Fish forged the Treaty of Washington <- provided for international arbitration

[The Abandonment of Reconstruction]

- interests on reconstruction falling

- Democrats coming into offices during Grant

- SC, Louisiana, and Florida -> had to wait until 1877 for end of the reconstruction (when fed. troops lefts)

(The Southern States “Redeemed”)

·      states with white majority <- Republican power

·      by 1872 – Southern whites regained suffrage

·      states with black majority / black=white equal weight <- whites used violence to intimate the blacks

·      secret societies: 1) Ku Klux Klan; 2) Knights of the White Camellia

o   use terrorism to frighten / physically bar blakcs from voting

·      paramilitary organizations: the Red Shirts and White Leagues

o   armed themselves to block blacks from election

o   worked to force all whites to join Democrat

·      economic pressure

o   some planters refused to rent land to Republican blacks

o   storekeepers refused to extend them credits

o   employers refused to give them jobs

·      Republican Congress respond: Enforcement Acts of 1870 and 1871 (known as Ku Klux Klan Acts): prohibited states from discriminating against voters based on races, gave fed. gov. to prosecute crimes by citizens under federal law; authorized the president to use federal troops to protect civil rights

o   Grant used in 1871 in SC

o   => discouraged KKK activities, declined in 1872

(Waning Northern Commitment)

·      state gov. adopted 15th amendment in 1870 -> many began turning to cooperate with Democrats

o   North: Charles Sumner and Horace Greeley - calling themselves “Liberals,” denouncing “black-and-carpetbag” movement

o   South: white Republicans turned to Democratic Party

·      Panic of 1873 -> discouraged the support for Reconstruction

·      1874: Democrats won majority in House of Representatives

o   first time since 1861

·      Grant reduced the use of military force

(The Compromise of 1877)

·      Grant wanted to run again in 1876 <- seeing Democratic successes and scandals, Republicans did not approve

o   -> nominated Ruhterford B. Hayes (Ohio, champion of civil service reform)

·      Democrat nominated Samuel J. Tilden (reform NY governor), known for fighting against Tweed Ring of NY City’s Tammany Hall

·      Disputed Election: Tilden won more popular votes, but Louisiana, SC, Florida, and Oregon (20 votes) in doubt

o   didn’t know what to do with disputed cases -> House (Democrat) or Senate (Republican)?

o   late Jan. 1877 -> created a special electoral commission (5 senators, 5 reps. and 5 justices of the Supreme Court)

§  7 Repub. – 7 Demo. – 1 independent (David Davis)

ú  David Davis resigned after elected to Illinois to Senate <- replaced by Republican

§  8 Repub. – 7 Demo.

·      Hayes elected

o   compromise between Repub. and Demo. over disputed election:

§  appointing at least one Southerner to the Hayes cabinet

§  control of fed. patronage in their areas

§  generous internal improvements

§  federal aid for Texas and Pacific Railroad

§  withdrawal of the remaining fed. troops from the South

·      Hayes inaugurated

o   withdrew the troops and allowed white Democrats take over the remaining southern state gov.

o   <- charged that he’s paying off the South ‘election conspiracy’

o   couldn’t easily mollify the critics

·      wanted to “new Republican” organizations in the South to support black rights

o   resent…politically impossible to continue Reconstruction

·      Democratic South shaping

(The Legacy of Reconstruction)

·      Reconstruction’s goal: improvements of blacks (redistribution of income / limited redistribution of landownership) <- African Americans’ self-help

·      reconstruction for Southern white elites: soon restored back to their own institutions, restored its traditional ruling class to power

·      limitations of reconstruction – failed to resolve racial injustice

·      14th and 15th amendment -> basis for a “Second Reconstruction”

[The New South]

- Compromise of 1877 -> failed to develop a stable and permanent Republican Party in the South

- South: Democratic Party

(The “Redeemers”)

·      white South supported -> “home rule”

o   in reality - political power in the region restricted than before the Civil War

o   fell under oligarchy – “Redeemers” / “Bourbons”

·      some places, ante- and post- Civil War ruling class structure stayed the same

o   Alabama: old planters in place

·      new ruling class emerging – merchants, industrialists, railroad developers, and financiers

o   former planters, northern immigrants <- social mobility

·      “Redeemers” = social conservatism + economic development

·      “Bourbon” – lowered taxes, reduced spending, diminished state services, reduced supports for public school

(Industrialization and the “New South”)

·      many white Southern leaders in post-Reconstruction era – hoped for industrial economy

·      “New South” – seldom challenged white supremacy, but promoted the virtues of thrift, industry, and progress

·      Southern industry expanded

o   textile manufacturing <- Southern planters didn’t have to ship the supplies to North

§  due to: 1) cheap labor, 2) abundance of water power, 3) low taxes, 4) supportive & conservative gov.

o   tobacco industry

o   iron/steel industry – (lower South) Birmingham, Alabama

·      Railroad development 1880 – 1890

o   number nearly doubled

o   width of the track age enlarged (same as North)

o   transportation convenience

·      southern manufactured doubled but still = 10% of the total

·      per capita income increased 21% but still = 40% of the North -> 1860, = 60% of the North

·      most capital coming from North

·      industry worker force: beginning = women (Civil War killed many men)

o   ½ of Northern workers’ wages, 12 hr/day

§  this encouraged Northern industrialists to come South

o   strict rules, suppressed protest/union organization

o   company sold goods to the workers at inflated prices

o   issued credit at exorbitant rates

o   eliminated competition <- price naturally became expensive

·      industries = no works for blacks

·      tobacco, iron, lumber = provided some employment for blacks

o   mill towns = black and white cultures in contact

§  made leaders to protect white supremacy

(Tenants and Sharecroppers)

·      impoverished state of agriculture -> 1870s and 1880s

o   tenantry (33% -> 70%) and debt peonage

o   no diversification (only focused on few cash crops)

o   absentee ownership of fertile lands

(African Americans and the New South)

·      some blacks emerging to middle class

o   property, established small businesses, entered professions

·      expanded education system

·      Booker T. Washington (founder/president of the Tuskegee Institute in Alabama)

o   born in slavery, later acquired an education at Virginia’s Hampton Institute

o   urged blacks to self-improve

§  attend school, learn skills, establish a solid footing in agriculture and the trades

§  refine their speech, elegant dressing, adopt habits of thrift and personal hygiene

o   goal: adopt to middleclass & win support from the whites

o   Atlanta Compromise (1895, Georgia, speech) – blacks should forgo for political rights and self-improvements, for equality, challenge any whites who wanted to discourage African Americans from gaining education/economic wealth

§  -> message to whites: blacks would oppose the system of segregation

(The Birth of Jim Crow)

·      white southerners did not accept the idea of racial equality -> after fed. supports gone in 1877, many began discriminating against blacks

o   1883 14th amendment cases: did not restrict private organizations or individuals from racial discrimination (only restricted the state gov. from doing so)

·      Court ruling for separation of the races

o   Plessy v. Ferguson (1896) – Louisiana law required segregated seating on railroads, and court ruled that as long as accommodations were equal, segregation is okay

o   Cumming v. County Board of Education (1899) – communities could establish schools for whites only, even if there’s no comparable schools for blacks

·      white Southerners tried to strop African Americans from voting

o   some states, disenfranchisement had begun asa Reconstruction ended

o   some states black still votes

§  whites felt they can control over black electorate, used it as an instrument to continue support for Republican

o   1890s: disenfranchisement became more rigid

§  white farmers demand complete black disenfranchisement (fear that Bourbons would use black votes)

§  white elites feared that poor whites and blacks would collude and unite politically

o   states passed voting-qualification test

§  black voting rates dropped by 62%, whites by 26%

·      “Jim Crow Laws” – racial segregation

o   stripped blacks of many social/economic/political gains

·      white violence against blacks increased

o   lynching – 187/year, 80% from South

§  attempt to control black through terrors and intimidation

·      1892 Ida B. Wells – black journalist, launched international anti-lynching movement

o   published emotional articles about lynching of three of her friends in Memphis, Tennessee

o   attracted support from whites in both the North and South (mostly white women)

o   goal: pass federal anti-lynching laws – punish those who have lunched

·      shared white supremacy diluted class animosities between poorer whites and the Bourbon oligarchies

o   economic policies played secondary role to race in southern politics

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