[The Changing American Population]
- population growth
(Population Trends)
· 1820 – 1840: rapid population increase, westward immigration, towns & cities growth (demands for work force grew)
· American population: (1790) 4 mil -> (1820) 10 mil -> (1840) 17 mil
o result of 1) improvements in public health; 2) high birth rate
· African-American population: 1808 slave imports banned + high death rate = slower growth rate
· Immigrations: Wars in Europe and economic crisis in America discouraged immigration -> reduction in transportation price + increasing opportunities in America = immigration boom
o Catholics from Ireland
o settled in growing cities of Northeast
o internal migration: to eastern cities / (minor) south farm regions
(Immigration and Urban Growth, 1840 – 1860)
· dramatic population growth
o 14% of free population live in cities (1840) -> 26% (1860)
o 6% of free population live in urban areas (1840) -> 10% (1860)
· West agricultural economy (1820 – 1840) forming new port cities, river ports
· Immigration from Europe: (1840 – 1850) 1.5 mil -> 2.5 mil (1850s)
o 1850s: almost ½ of NY population = immigrants
o few settled in South
· Immigration: mostly from Germany / Ireland
o 1860: 1 mil German (moved to northwest -> farmers or small businessmen) / 1.5 mil Irish-born (eastern cities -> unskilled labor workers)
(The Rise of Nativism)
· Democrats wanted supports from the immigrants
· Some watched it with alarm
o some argued the immigrants are inferior / they corrupt the politics by selling their votes
o complained that immigrants are stealing the jobs
o Protestants worried Irish would increase Catholic power
o -> “Alien Menace”
· Native American Association (1837) -> Native American Party (1845) -> joined with other nativist groups to form the Supreme Order of the Star-Spangled banner (1850)
o demanded to ban Catholics / aliens from holding public office
o passed more naturalization laws
o establishing literacy tests for voting
o strict code of secrecy; code: “I know nothing” -> known as “Know-Nothings”
· 1852 election: Know-Nothings created “American Party”
o took control over Massachusetts, did well in NY and Pennsylvania, but not so well outside of Northeast
o after 1854: declined and disappeared
[Transportation and Communication Revolutions]
- 1800s – 1850s :: dramatic change of transportation and communication
(The Canal Age)
· 1790 – 1820s: turnpike era
· 1820s – 1830s: further development for nation’s expanding needs
o steamboats replaced slow barges
§ carried cotton / tobacco of Southwestern planters ß en route à New Orleans
· many wanted direct access to urban markets and ports of the Atlantic Coast -> building canals
o Canals: financing first by states
· NY (first – 1817 July): Hudson Rv. <-> Lake Erie ß difficulty: 350-mile route interrupted by high ridges and thick woods
o Erie Canal (finished in 1825) <- required high technology, high cost – imposed high tariff (7 yr tolls payed things off)
§ provided route to the Great Lakes
§ NY <-> Chicago
o Erie Canal contributed to the downfall of NE agriculture
§ cheaper for Western farmers to ship crops east ; NE farmers can’t compete
· Ohio and Indiana connected Lake Erie <-> Ohio River
o possible from NY <-> New Orleans
· Results: increased white settlement in the Northwest
o western products -> New Orleans (*and to NY)
o eastern manufactured goods -> East -> NY -> West
· other rival cities didn’t succeed in catching up
(The Early Railroads)
· 1820s – 1830s: railroad = minor roles
· technological + entrepreneurial innovation = railroads
o steam-powered locomotives
o trains as public carriers of passengers and freight
· 1820: John Stevens ran a locomotive and cars (New Jersey)
· 1825: Stockton and Darlington Railroad in England = first line of general traffic
· Baltimore and Ohio (1830) – opened 13-mile stretch of track
· NY (1831) – Mohawk and Hudson began running trains Schenectady <-> Albany
· 1836: long tracks in 11 states
(The Triumph of the Rails)
· 3,000 mi (1840) -> 27,000 mi (1860) mostly in Northeast
o even crossed Mississippi over iron bridges
o Chicago = rail center
· main water routes: 1) Erie Canal / 2) Mississippi River
o lessened the dependence of the West on Mississippi
· Railroads lessen the connection of Northwest and South
· Most from federal gov. assistance than from public land grants / private land companies
· Impacts: 1) active trades; 2) railroads cut the time for shipping and travelling A LOT
· Railroads =
o nation’s economic growth
o modern corporate form of organization
o symbol for nation’s technological prowess
(The Telegraph)
· before: post offices (horseback and coach) -> railroad travels
· 1830s: experiments with faster communication methods
o sun and reflective devices to send light signals
· 1832: Samuel F. B. Morse – electricity, trying to find a way to send signal through electrical wiring to send reproductions of human voice / complex info.
o Morse Code: language of electrical pulse
· 1843: Congress - $30,000 for experimental telegraph line between Baltimore and Washington
o May 1844: completed <- sent Morse code
· 1860: more than 50,000 miles of wire connected the country
o wire = often along the railroad tracks -> telegraph offices often located in railroad stations
o helped prevent accidents by alerting stations
(New Forms of Journalism)
· American Journalism – fast, quick news delivery
· 1846: newspaper publishers formed the Associated Press (AP) for cooperative news gathering by wire
· 1846: Richard Hoe (steam cylinder rotary press) -> faster and cheaper print
[Commerce and Industry]
- mid-19th century :: modern capitalist economy, advanced industrial capacity
- benefiting some classes and some regions unequally
(The Expansion of Business, 1820 - 1840)
· individuals or limited partnerships = most business / / great merchant capitalist = sole ownership
· in some cases, individual merchant capitalist giving away to Corporation
o began developing 1830s (legal obstacle removed)
§ before) corporation could only obtain a charter by special act of state legislature only
§ after) states passed general incorporation laws (a group can secure a charter by paying a fee) -> system of limited liability (stockholders risked losing only up to the amount of their investment)
o growth of larger corporations
(The Emergence of the Factory)
· Products (factory)
o before War of 1812: mostly made in small shops or homemade
o later of 1800s: NE textile manufacturers with new machines from water power, allowed to bring operation at the same time
§ Factory System
· 1840 – 1860: more than ½ of 140,000 manufacturing establishments in Northeast -> produced more than 2/3 of manufactured goods <- employed nearly ¾ of men and women
(Advances in Technology)
· 1840s: technological development for more refined products
· machine tools
o gov. supported research and development <- in connection with military
§ early 1800s: Springfield, Massachusetts – turret lathe and universal milling machine
§ 1850s: standardized rifle parts
o 1840s: Americans were better than that of Europe’s
· interchangeable parts spread into many industries
o then) watch, clock, manufacturing of locomotives, steam engines, farm tools
o later) bicycles, sweing machines, typewriters, cash registers, and automobiles
· coal production: Pennsylvania - 50,000 ton (1820) -> 14 mil (1860)
· 544 patent (1830) -> 4778 patent (1860)
· some achievements
o 1839: Charles Goodyear (NE) method of vulcanizing rubber
o 1846: Elias Howe (Massachusetts) sewing machine -> Isaac Singer made improvements on it; Howe-Singer machine for ready-to-wear clothes
(Innovations in Corporate Organization)
· merchant capitalism declined in 1850s
o British competitors
o greater opportunities for profit in manufacturing than in trade
· industry grew in North <- north merchant class with money began financing
o emerging industrial capitalists became new aristocrats of the Northwest; economic and political influence
[Men and Women At Work]
- (1820s – 1830s) factory open to native-borns; (1840) immigrants
(Recruiting a Native Work Force)
· (1820s) - 90% Americans lived/worked in farms v.s. skilled artisans in urban area
o not enough unskilled workers for industries
· agricultural production improvements (MidWest) -> open chance for importing foods from other states -> no need to farm anymore
o more ppl left rural area to work in industries
· Recruitment Systems
o 1) (mid-Atlantic states) brought whole families from the farm and work together
o 2) (Massachusetts) enlisted young women -> “Lowell or Waltham System”
§ women worked and saved money, went back home and marry
· Lowell women treated generally well, generous wages, even published monthly magazine
· 1830s – 1840s – competitive textile market, manufacturers found unable to keep up with original condition
o wages declined, work hours prolonged, condition deteriorated
· 1834: “Factory Girls Association” -> strike to protest a 25% wage cut; 2 yrs later, strike against rent increase in the boarding houses
o both strikes failed; recession in 1837 destroyed the organization
· 1842: “Female Labor Reform Association” (led by militant Sarah Bagley) -> for 10 hr/day and condition improvements
o asked state gov. and legislative to check the conditions in the mills
· gradually girls moved to other occupations
o teachers, domestic service, marriage
· manufacturers turned to immigrants
(The Immigrant Work Force)
· 1840: increasing immigrants -> factory workers
o poorly paid, poor condition, over-working, heavy tasks
· Irish workers dominating NE textile mills
o piece rates (than daily wage)
o exploited workforce (12-14 hr/day)
· women/children earned far less than men
(The Factory System and the Artisan Tradition)
· artisan (long republican provision) <- outcompeted by growing industries
· 1820s – 1830s: formed societies for mutual aid “Trade Unions”
o 1834: delegates from six cities founded “National Trades’ Union”
o 1836: printers and shoemakers set up National Craft Union
· (difficulties) hostile laws & courts handicapped the unions / Panic of 1837
(Fighting for Control)
· workers tried to persuade state legislatures to pass laws for maximum workday and regulate child labor <- little success
· 1842 (Massachusetts) Commonwealth v. Hunt declared Unions = lawful organizations; strikes = lawful weapon
· most craft unions excluded women -> 1850s, women established their own unons
· Immigrants
o many immigrants willing to work at lower prices than native workers <- employers easily replaced
o ethnic division : separate protests
· industrial capitalist: packed with economic + political, social power.
[Patterns of Society]
- unequal social relationship
(The Rich and the Poor)
· increased average income <- distributed unequally
o some class with low income: slaves, Indians, landless farmers, unskilled workers
· income disparity began to grow -> rich began forming their own community in large cities
o display their wealth: great mansions, carriages, luxurious goods, social establishment
o 1850s: construction of Central Park <- for daily carriage riding (wealthy men)
· urban destitute: w/out properties, homes
o depended on charity or crimes or both
o many were recent immigrants (esp. Irish)
o free blacks: couldn’t vote, attend publish schools, use public services
§ most preferred North
(Social Mobility)
· little class conflict:
o most life was better in America than in Europe
o mobility within working class <- American Dream
· geographical mobility: saved money, bought land, moved west and began as a farmer
o few could afford to do so
· most moved from one industrial region to another
o victims of layoffs
· divided work force made unions not as powerful and effective
(Middle-Class Life)
· fast-growing middle class <- economic development provided them with chances
o could become wealth without owning lands but through industry
· middle class lived in city streets, owned houses but less lavish
o women usually remained and cared for house
o -> hired immigrant women servants -> massive housework loads
· cast-iron stoves -> began subbing fireplaces
o increased food variety
o few had iceboxes <- fresh meats // but most didn’t have refrigerator <- conserved foods with salts
· Middle-class began distinguishing themselves from others
o baroque household styles of the Victorian era (crowded style)
o house became larger
o parlor and dining room separated from kitchen (considered a luxury)
o 1850s: some urban had in-door toilets
(The Changing Family)
· children leave house to look for job
· early 1800s; family = economic unit
· distinction between family and workplace
o concerns for family – housekeeping, child rearing, domestic concerns (households) etc.
· 1800 – 1860: decline of birth rate (7 -> 5)
(The “Cult of Domesticity”)
· women dominated by men
o seldom encouraged education above primary level
o before 1837: no college accepted females
· preindustrial era: all members = income earners
· new industrial society: in a middle-class family,
o men = main income producer
o women = “domestic virtues” <- tending the house, dress up stylishly
· Literature: romantic novels, magazines focused on fashions, shipping, house making, and other domestic concerns
· “cult of domesticity” – placed higher value for “female virtues”
o female workers = low class preserves
· working class women working in worse condition than Lowell and Waltham
· domestic service = women employment
(Leisure Activities)
· all but wealthy class had leisure activities - because they had to work
o Sunday: religious serving
o July 4th: non-religious holiday
· most men: 1) drinking, 2) talking; 3) game-playing after work
· women: gathered in the house for 1) conversation; 2) card games
· educated: 1) reading (newspapers, magazines) <- books = symbol for wealth
· theater: American popular novels / myths
· 1830s: Shakespeare – very popular in America
o parodies and sandwich-version apparent in rural areas
o many big fans (1849 – a riot)
· ministerial shows (ridiculed African-American culture)
· sporting events: boxing, horse racing, cockfighting (becoming controversial)
· yearning or bizarre and fantastic
o P. T. Barnum – opened a museum in NY 1842 with collection of strange ppl
· lectures – keep up updates of science, experiences in exotic places, historical narratives, advocate against alcohol/slavery
o particularly attracted women
[The Agricultural North]
- Northeast – urbanization and industrialization
- Northwest – tied to agricultural world -> becoming part of capitalist economy
(Northeastern Agriculture)
· after 1820: agriculture in Northeast – decline & transformation
o couldn’t compete with Northwest
§ 1840 -> 1860, wheat production taken away by western states
§ 1840 -> 1850, most cattle production taken away by western states
· eastern farmers went to establish new farms; others moved to mill towns and became laborers
· some remained in the farm and began supplying foods for growing cities
o raised vegetables (truck farming), fruits
o provided milk, butter, cheese to local urban market
(The Old Northwest)
· Northwest – agricultural machinery, meat-packing (farming machinery), agricultural products
· Indians in upper third of the Great Lakes (until the civil war)
o hunting, fishing, sitting agriculture
· Northwest = farming lands
o good soil -> high production
o inhabitants were generally rich planters
· growing cities -> more demands -> more production -> more profits
· Northwest sold products to Northeast <- isolation of South in the Union
· 1850: white population moving to Mississippi regions
o cleared forest or used Indian lands
o developed timber industry
o wheat, corn, potato, oats, livestock
· new agricultural technique:
o Mediterranean wheat
o better-bred animals (hogs / sheep)
o farm tools and machines: 1) cast iron plow (replaceable parts); 2) steel plows (1847 – John Deere, Illinois) – more durable
· new technology for grain production
o 1) automatic reaper (Cyrus H. McCormick of Virginia)
§ pulled by horse power, cutting wheat -> mass harvest
§ patented in 1834, producing in a factory 1847, Chicago
§ 1860: more than 100,000 reapers in use
o 2) thresher (separate grain from the wheat stalks)
§ Jerome I. Case factory in Wisconsin
· Northwest <- capitalistic, property-conscious, middle class
· Abraham Lincoln (Whig): anyone can do anything for his life
(Rural Life)
· populated region: gathered in church, school, taverns, etc.
· as moving further west <- isolated
· communication through
o church gathering
o prayer meeting (in houses)
o weeding, baptism, funerals
· meeting for
o sharing farming tactics
o share domestic tasks (weaving etc.)
· less contact with popular culture / public life
o letters from relatives / friends from distant places
o newspaper/magazines/ad catalogs
· valued autonomy gained from it
- population growth
(Population Trends)
· 1820 – 1840: rapid population increase, westward immigration, towns & cities growth (demands for work force grew)
· American population: (1790) 4 mil -> (1820) 10 mil -> (1840) 17 mil
o result of 1) improvements in public health; 2) high birth rate
· African-American population: 1808 slave imports banned + high death rate = slower growth rate
· Immigrations: Wars in Europe and economic crisis in America discouraged immigration -> reduction in transportation price + increasing opportunities in America = immigration boom
o Catholics from Ireland
o settled in growing cities of Northeast
o internal migration: to eastern cities / (minor) south farm regions
(Immigration and Urban Growth, 1840 – 1860)
· dramatic population growth
o 14% of free population live in cities (1840) -> 26% (1860)
o 6% of free population live in urban areas (1840) -> 10% (1860)
· West agricultural economy (1820 – 1840) forming new port cities, river ports
· Immigration from Europe: (1840 – 1850) 1.5 mil -> 2.5 mil (1850s)
o 1850s: almost ½ of NY population = immigrants
o few settled in South
· Immigration: mostly from Germany / Ireland
o 1860: 1 mil German (moved to northwest -> farmers or small businessmen) / 1.5 mil Irish-born (eastern cities -> unskilled labor workers)
(The Rise of Nativism)
· Democrats wanted supports from the immigrants
· Some watched it with alarm
o some argued the immigrants are inferior / they corrupt the politics by selling their votes
o complained that immigrants are stealing the jobs
o Protestants worried Irish would increase Catholic power
o -> “Alien Menace”
· Native American Association (1837) -> Native American Party (1845) -> joined with other nativist groups to form the Supreme Order of the Star-Spangled banner (1850)
o demanded to ban Catholics / aliens from holding public office
o passed more naturalization laws
o establishing literacy tests for voting
o strict code of secrecy; code: “I know nothing” -> known as “Know-Nothings”
· 1852 election: Know-Nothings created “American Party”
o took control over Massachusetts, did well in NY and Pennsylvania, but not so well outside of Northeast
o after 1854: declined and disappeared
[Transportation and Communication Revolutions]
- 1800s – 1850s :: dramatic change of transportation and communication
(The Canal Age)
· 1790 – 1820s: turnpike era
· 1820s – 1830s: further development for nation’s expanding needs
o steamboats replaced slow barges
§ carried cotton / tobacco of Southwestern planters ß en route à New Orleans
· many wanted direct access to urban markets and ports of the Atlantic Coast -> building canals
o Canals: financing first by states
· NY (first – 1817 July): Hudson Rv. <-> Lake Erie ß difficulty: 350-mile route interrupted by high ridges and thick woods
o Erie Canal (finished in 1825) <- required high technology, high cost – imposed high tariff (7 yr tolls payed things off)
§ provided route to the Great Lakes
§ NY <-> Chicago
o Erie Canal contributed to the downfall of NE agriculture
§ cheaper for Western farmers to ship crops east ; NE farmers can’t compete
· Ohio and Indiana connected Lake Erie <-> Ohio River
o possible from NY <-> New Orleans
· Results: increased white settlement in the Northwest
o western products -> New Orleans (*and to NY)
o eastern manufactured goods -> East -> NY -> West
· other rival cities didn’t succeed in catching up
(The Early Railroads)
· 1820s – 1830s: railroad = minor roles
· technological + entrepreneurial innovation = railroads
o steam-powered locomotives
o trains as public carriers of passengers and freight
· 1820: John Stevens ran a locomotive and cars (New Jersey)
· 1825: Stockton and Darlington Railroad in England = first line of general traffic
· Baltimore and Ohio (1830) – opened 13-mile stretch of track
· NY (1831) – Mohawk and Hudson began running trains Schenectady <-> Albany
· 1836: long tracks in 11 states
(The Triumph of the Rails)
· 3,000 mi (1840) -> 27,000 mi (1860) mostly in Northeast
o even crossed Mississippi over iron bridges
o Chicago = rail center
· main water routes: 1) Erie Canal / 2) Mississippi River
o lessened the dependence of the West on Mississippi
· Railroads lessen the connection of Northwest and South
· Most from federal gov. assistance than from public land grants / private land companies
· Impacts: 1) active trades; 2) railroads cut the time for shipping and travelling A LOT
· Railroads =
o nation’s economic growth
o modern corporate form of organization
o symbol for nation’s technological prowess
(The Telegraph)
· before: post offices (horseback and coach) -> railroad travels
· 1830s: experiments with faster communication methods
o sun and reflective devices to send light signals
· 1832: Samuel F. B. Morse – electricity, trying to find a way to send signal through electrical wiring to send reproductions of human voice / complex info.
o Morse Code: language of electrical pulse
· 1843: Congress - $30,000 for experimental telegraph line between Baltimore and Washington
o May 1844: completed <- sent Morse code
· 1860: more than 50,000 miles of wire connected the country
o wire = often along the railroad tracks -> telegraph offices often located in railroad stations
o helped prevent accidents by alerting stations
(New Forms of Journalism)
· American Journalism – fast, quick news delivery
· 1846: newspaper publishers formed the Associated Press (AP) for cooperative news gathering by wire
· 1846: Richard Hoe (steam cylinder rotary press) -> faster and cheaper print
[Commerce and Industry]
- mid-19th century :: modern capitalist economy, advanced industrial capacity
- benefiting some classes and some regions unequally
(The Expansion of Business, 1820 - 1840)
· individuals or limited partnerships = most business / / great merchant capitalist = sole ownership
· in some cases, individual merchant capitalist giving away to Corporation
o began developing 1830s (legal obstacle removed)
§ before) corporation could only obtain a charter by special act of state legislature only
§ after) states passed general incorporation laws (a group can secure a charter by paying a fee) -> system of limited liability (stockholders risked losing only up to the amount of their investment)
o growth of larger corporations
(The Emergence of the Factory)
· Products (factory)
o before War of 1812: mostly made in small shops or homemade
o later of 1800s: NE textile manufacturers with new machines from water power, allowed to bring operation at the same time
§ Factory System
· 1840 – 1860: more than ½ of 140,000 manufacturing establishments in Northeast -> produced more than 2/3 of manufactured goods <- employed nearly ¾ of men and women
(Advances in Technology)
· 1840s: technological development for more refined products
· machine tools
o gov. supported research and development <- in connection with military
§ early 1800s: Springfield, Massachusetts – turret lathe and universal milling machine
§ 1850s: standardized rifle parts
o 1840s: Americans were better than that of Europe’s
· interchangeable parts spread into many industries
o then) watch, clock, manufacturing of locomotives, steam engines, farm tools
o later) bicycles, sweing machines, typewriters, cash registers, and automobiles
· coal production: Pennsylvania - 50,000 ton (1820) -> 14 mil (1860)
· 544 patent (1830) -> 4778 patent (1860)
· some achievements
o 1839: Charles Goodyear (NE) method of vulcanizing rubber
o 1846: Elias Howe (Massachusetts) sewing machine -> Isaac Singer made improvements on it; Howe-Singer machine for ready-to-wear clothes
(Innovations in Corporate Organization)
· merchant capitalism declined in 1850s
o British competitors
o greater opportunities for profit in manufacturing than in trade
· industry grew in North <- north merchant class with money began financing
o emerging industrial capitalists became new aristocrats of the Northwest; economic and political influence
[Men and Women At Work]
- (1820s – 1830s) factory open to native-borns; (1840) immigrants
(Recruiting a Native Work Force)
· (1820s) - 90% Americans lived/worked in farms v.s. skilled artisans in urban area
o not enough unskilled workers for industries
· agricultural production improvements (MidWest) -> open chance for importing foods from other states -> no need to farm anymore
o more ppl left rural area to work in industries
· Recruitment Systems
o 1) (mid-Atlantic states) brought whole families from the farm and work together
o 2) (Massachusetts) enlisted young women -> “Lowell or Waltham System”
§ women worked and saved money, went back home and marry
· Lowell women treated generally well, generous wages, even published monthly magazine
· 1830s – 1840s – competitive textile market, manufacturers found unable to keep up with original condition
o wages declined, work hours prolonged, condition deteriorated
· 1834: “Factory Girls Association” -> strike to protest a 25% wage cut; 2 yrs later, strike against rent increase in the boarding houses
o both strikes failed; recession in 1837 destroyed the organization
· 1842: “Female Labor Reform Association” (led by militant Sarah Bagley) -> for 10 hr/day and condition improvements
o asked state gov. and legislative to check the conditions in the mills
· gradually girls moved to other occupations
o teachers, domestic service, marriage
· manufacturers turned to immigrants
(The Immigrant Work Force)
· 1840: increasing immigrants -> factory workers
o poorly paid, poor condition, over-working, heavy tasks
· Irish workers dominating NE textile mills
o piece rates (than daily wage)
o exploited workforce (12-14 hr/day)
· women/children earned far less than men
(The Factory System and the Artisan Tradition)
· artisan (long republican provision) <- outcompeted by growing industries
· 1820s – 1830s: formed societies for mutual aid “Trade Unions”
o 1834: delegates from six cities founded “National Trades’ Union”
o 1836: printers and shoemakers set up National Craft Union
· (difficulties) hostile laws & courts handicapped the unions / Panic of 1837
(Fighting for Control)
· workers tried to persuade state legislatures to pass laws for maximum workday and regulate child labor <- little success
· 1842 (Massachusetts) Commonwealth v. Hunt declared Unions = lawful organizations; strikes = lawful weapon
· most craft unions excluded women -> 1850s, women established their own unons
· Immigrants
o many immigrants willing to work at lower prices than native workers <- employers easily replaced
o ethnic division : separate protests
· industrial capitalist: packed with economic + political, social power.
[Patterns of Society]
- unequal social relationship
(The Rich and the Poor)
· increased average income <- distributed unequally
o some class with low income: slaves, Indians, landless farmers, unskilled workers
· income disparity began to grow -> rich began forming their own community in large cities
o display their wealth: great mansions, carriages, luxurious goods, social establishment
o 1850s: construction of Central Park <- for daily carriage riding (wealthy men)
· urban destitute: w/out properties, homes
o depended on charity or crimes or both
o many were recent immigrants (esp. Irish)
o free blacks: couldn’t vote, attend publish schools, use public services
§ most preferred North
(Social Mobility)
· little class conflict:
o most life was better in America than in Europe
o mobility within working class <- American Dream
· geographical mobility: saved money, bought land, moved west and began as a farmer
o few could afford to do so
· most moved from one industrial region to another
o victims of layoffs
· divided work force made unions not as powerful and effective
(Middle-Class Life)
· fast-growing middle class <- economic development provided them with chances
o could become wealth without owning lands but through industry
· middle class lived in city streets, owned houses but less lavish
o women usually remained and cared for house
o -> hired immigrant women servants -> massive housework loads
· cast-iron stoves -> began subbing fireplaces
o increased food variety
o few had iceboxes <- fresh meats // but most didn’t have refrigerator <- conserved foods with salts
· Middle-class began distinguishing themselves from others
o baroque household styles of the Victorian era (crowded style)
o house became larger
o parlor and dining room separated from kitchen (considered a luxury)
o 1850s: some urban had in-door toilets
(The Changing Family)
· children leave house to look for job
· early 1800s; family = economic unit
· distinction between family and workplace
o concerns for family – housekeeping, child rearing, domestic concerns (households) etc.
· 1800 – 1860: decline of birth rate (7 -> 5)
(The “Cult of Domesticity”)
· women dominated by men
o seldom encouraged education above primary level
o before 1837: no college accepted females
· preindustrial era: all members = income earners
· new industrial society: in a middle-class family,
o men = main income producer
o women = “domestic virtues” <- tending the house, dress up stylishly
· Literature: romantic novels, magazines focused on fashions, shipping, house making, and other domestic concerns
· “cult of domesticity” – placed higher value for “female virtues”
o female workers = low class preserves
· working class women working in worse condition than Lowell and Waltham
· domestic service = women employment
(Leisure Activities)
· all but wealthy class had leisure activities - because they had to work
o Sunday: religious serving
o July 4th: non-religious holiday
· most men: 1) drinking, 2) talking; 3) game-playing after work
· women: gathered in the house for 1) conversation; 2) card games
· educated: 1) reading (newspapers, magazines) <- books = symbol for wealth
· theater: American popular novels / myths
· 1830s: Shakespeare – very popular in America
o parodies and sandwich-version apparent in rural areas
o many big fans (1849 – a riot)
· ministerial shows (ridiculed African-American culture)
· sporting events: boxing, horse racing, cockfighting (becoming controversial)
· yearning or bizarre and fantastic
o P. T. Barnum – opened a museum in NY 1842 with collection of strange ppl
· lectures – keep up updates of science, experiences in exotic places, historical narratives, advocate against alcohol/slavery
o particularly attracted women
[The Agricultural North]
- Northeast – urbanization and industrialization
- Northwest – tied to agricultural world -> becoming part of capitalist economy
(Northeastern Agriculture)
· after 1820: agriculture in Northeast – decline & transformation
o couldn’t compete with Northwest
§ 1840 -> 1860, wheat production taken away by western states
§ 1840 -> 1850, most cattle production taken away by western states
· eastern farmers went to establish new farms; others moved to mill towns and became laborers
· some remained in the farm and began supplying foods for growing cities
o raised vegetables (truck farming), fruits
o provided milk, butter, cheese to local urban market
(The Old Northwest)
· Northwest – agricultural machinery, meat-packing (farming machinery), agricultural products
· Indians in upper third of the Great Lakes (until the civil war)
o hunting, fishing, sitting agriculture
· Northwest = farming lands
o good soil -> high production
o inhabitants were generally rich planters
· growing cities -> more demands -> more production -> more profits
· Northwest sold products to Northeast <- isolation of South in the Union
· 1850: white population moving to Mississippi regions
o cleared forest or used Indian lands
o developed timber industry
o wheat, corn, potato, oats, livestock
· new agricultural technique:
o Mediterranean wheat
o better-bred animals (hogs / sheep)
o farm tools and machines: 1) cast iron plow (replaceable parts); 2) steel plows (1847 – John Deere, Illinois) – more durable
· new technology for grain production
o 1) automatic reaper (Cyrus H. McCormick of Virginia)
§ pulled by horse power, cutting wheat -> mass harvest
§ patented in 1834, producing in a factory 1847, Chicago
§ 1860: more than 100,000 reapers in use
o 2) thresher (separate grain from the wheat stalks)
§ Jerome I. Case factory in Wisconsin
· Northwest <- capitalistic, property-conscious, middle class
· Abraham Lincoln (Whig): anyone can do anything for his life
(Rural Life)
· populated region: gathered in church, school, taverns, etc.
· as moving further west <- isolated
· communication through
o church gathering
o prayer meeting (in houses)
o weeding, baptism, funerals
· meeting for
o sharing farming tactics
o share domestic tasks (weaving etc.)
· less contact with popular culture / public life
o letters from relatives / friends from distant places
o newspaper/magazines/ad catalogs
· valued autonomy gained from it
